Editor’s note: What are the main obstacles facing the gospel in China today?
The best way to answer that question is by looking back at Chinese history: first to the Nestorian Church, which flourished more than a thousand years ago during the Tang Dynasty; and then to Matteo Ricci, who arrived in China in the 1500s. Christianity actually has a long history in China — but it never took root and flourished as a native faith during either of those eras. What gospel obstacles existed in China then — and still persist today?
The author believes there are some clear mistakes made by both the Nestorians and, later, Ricci. Namely, he believes the missionary groups focused too much on trying to spread the faith among elites, and that they over-contextualized Christianity. While Christian belief must “speak the language” of China, it must not overly-conform to Chinese norms. Instead, it needs to hold tightly to its own identity.
Gospel Obstacles? Look to History
We don’t have to speculate, and we don’t need to make up hypothetical scenarios. If we want to know the main obstacles and challenges facing the gospel in today’s Chinese culture, we can look directly at the past. We can draw conclusions about the present based on history.
Looking back from today’s vantage point, we can see that there are two things the Nestorians probably got wrong. But even if we could travel back in time, we ourselves might not do any better.
It’s widely known that Christianity first came into China with the Nestorians [in the 7th century].[1] At first, Nestorianism had a lot of success in China, and “cross temples”[2] spread throughout the country. Despite initial success, Nestorian Christianity was later completely swept out of China as part of Emperor Wuzong’s systematic suppression of Buddhism.[3]
All this gives us an important lesson. Looking back from today’s vantage point, we can see that there are two things the Nestorians probably got wrong. But even if we could travel back in time, we ourselves might not do any better. The people then simply had to deal with the historical conditions of their time.
Don’t Depend on Political Power; Don’t Be Syncretistic
The first thing the Nestorians got wrong was they became dependent on political power. The Nestorian Christians tried to establish connections with Central Asian forces within the Tang Dynasty. They tried to connect with armed, aristocratic groups like the Uyghurs and the Turks. The Nestorian Christians originally came from Syria, and they repeatedly tried to attach themselves to those who were powerful and influential in China at the time. The Nestorian Stele[4] repeatedly hints – and scholars confirm this – that the Nestorians had connections with Guo Ziyi,[5] and many other generals besides him.
The first thing the Nestorians got wrong was they became dependent on political power.
The second thing we can learn from the early Christians of China is that the Sinicization of Christianity went too far. Those early believers borrowed extensively, using Buddhist and Taoist terms to express Christian thought. Of course, in one sense this is necessary – you have to use the Chinese language to communicate!
But the Sinicization of Christianity was taken to excess. This was done to the point where some of the monks who translated the Bible or other Christian books actually had malicious intent. I have personally seen some documents where monks deliberately mistranslated “Messiah” as “mí shī shǔ” (迷失鼠). Phonetically, it sounds similar – but it literally means “lost rat!” Although the sounds might be similar, clearly this was blasphemous and malicious.
There are many other similar examples. Ordinary people could not distinguish: is this Christianity? Or is it just another branch of Buddhism?
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Repeating Earlier Mistakes
Next, we can look at the period beginning with the Ming [1368-1644] and Qing dynasties [1644-1912] and moving forward.
Ricci wanted to take the high-level, elite route. He even wanted to penetrate the imperial court.
In a sense, Matteo Ricci[6] repeated the pattern of China’s earlier Christians. Ricci wanted to take the high-level, elite route. He even wanted to penetrate the imperial court. If possible, he very much hoped the Ming emperor would come to faith. To some degree, he indirectly achieved this ideal with the small court of the Southern Ming.[7]
But the “small court” really only wanted to gain support from the Catholic world so they could help their own rule. They didn’t truly come to faith. There was some abundant fruit, people like Xu Guangqi and Sun Yuanhua [prominent Chinese converts to Catholicism]. These men were very famous, and had a profound and far-reaching impact on China.
Matteo Ricci was deeply respected. He could recite the “Four Books and Five Classics”[8] and knew Confucian classics backwards and forwards; his Chinese was extremely fluent; and his written articles were even better than those written by imperial princes and noble scholars.
Once again, spreading Christianity via the high-level route proved unworkable.
Kangxi, the emperor as China transitioned from the period of the late Ming Dynasty to the early period of the Qing Dynasty, initially had favorable feelings toward Christianity. But once the Qing consolidated power and inherited the Ming governmental system, Kangxi began to implement nationwide religious prohibitions. Once again, spreading Christianity via the high-level route proved unworkable.
[1] Nestorian Christianity arrived in China during the Tang Dynasty via merchants who traveled the Silk Road. Nestorianism was a heretical sect that emphasized the separation of Christ’s divine and human natures. There is active debate on whether early Chinese Christians were heretical, following in the footsteps of Nestorius, or if they followed a more orthodox faith.
[2] “Cross temples” were Christian houses of worship: churches, that displayed the cross. During the Tang Dynasty, Christian places of worship became known as “cross temples.”
[3] In 843 AD, Emperor Wuzong actively persecuted Buddhist temples and organizations throughout China. At the time, Buddhism was regarded as a “foreign religion,” since it originally came from India and spread to China along the Silk Road. Other foreign religions, such as Zorastrianism, Manichaeism, and, of course, Nestorian Christianity, were likewise swept up in the persecution. After the 843 suppression, Christianity disappeared from China for hundreds of years.
[4] The Nestorian Stele is a monument that was put up in what is now Xi’an, China, in the year 781 A.D. Written in Chinese characters, the stone pillar tells the story of the church and its relationships Tang Dynasty leaders. Christianity came to China in 635, and was expelled in 845. The stele was rediscovered in 1625, and is a very important historical source for understanding ancient China’s relationship with Christianity.
[5]Guo Ziyi was one of the most important generals of the Tang Dynasty, a leader who was so revered he was later seen as a god in popular Chinese religion.
[6] Matteo Ricci was an Italian Jesuit missionary, who lived from 1552-1610. He brought Christianity to the court of the emperor in the 1500s, and was widely respected in the upper levels of Chinese society.
[7] In the 1600s, the Ming Dynasty was overthrown by the Manchus (who went on to set up the Qing Dynasty). The Manchus began their conquest of China in the northeast, but after conquering Beijing it took them some more years to take over the rest of the country. Some of the Ming leaders escaped Beijing and set up Southern Ming.
Although Catholic missionaries had some success in converting leaders of the Southern Ming, this had very little impact in China because this group was overthrown after just a few years.
[8] The most important books of Chinese classic literature, these nine books comprise the core teachings of Confucianism.
Guo Muyun is a pseudonym for a house church pastor. He was converted and baptized in college, and taught in a Chinese university for many years while also serving his church. He is married, and the father of four children.
Pray for today’s Chinese Christians to learn the lessons of the past and help Christianity take deep root in the fabric of Chinese culture and society.
